Qigong is the Mandarin Chinese term used to describe various Chinese system of physical and mental training for health, ^[1] martial arts ^[2] and self-enlightenment. ^[3]

Qigong or Chi kung (an equivalent term derived from Wade-Giles Romanization) is an English Romanization of two Chinese characters: Qi (氣) and Gong (功). The dictionary definition for the word “qi” usually involved the meaning of “breathing”, “air”, “gas” and “vapor” but it can also be used in the context of describing the relationship between matter, energy and spirit. ^[4] The dictionary definition for the word “Gong” (功) is that of achievement or results. The two words are combined to describe systems and methods of “energy cultivation” and the manipulation of intrinsic energy within living organisms. ^[5]

There are many forms of qigong originating from different segments within Chinese society. ^[6] The traditional Chinese Medical community uses qigong for preventive and curative functions. ^[7] The Chinese martial arts community considered qigong training an important component in enhancing martial abilities. ^[8] The religious community including both Taoist Taoism refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia for more than two millennia, and have had a notable influence on the western world particularly since the 19th century. The word 道, Tao (or Dao, depending on the romanization scheme), roughly translates as, "path" or "way& and Buddhist Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by adherents as an traditions uses qigong as part of their meditative practice. ^[3] Confucian scholars practice qigong to improve their moral character. ^[5] In the 1940s and the 1950s, the Chinese government tried to integrate those disparate approaches into one coherent system with the intention of establishing firmer scientific bases for those practices and as part of the political philosophy of the Cultural Revolution The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was a violent mass movement that resulted in social, political, and economic upheaval in the People’s Republic of China starting in 1966 and ending officially with Mao's death in 1976. It resulted in nation-wide chaos and economic disarray and stagnation. This attempt is considered by some sinologists as the start of the modern interpretation of qigong science. ^{[9] [10]} Through the forces of migration, tourism and globalization, the practice and the promise of qigong has spread from the Chinese community to the world.

The practices of Qigong are differentiated by four types of training: dynamic, static, meditative and activities requiring external aids. Dynamic training involves special movement and applies to exercise such as Tai ji quan Tai chi chuan (literal translation "Supreme Ultimate Fist") is an internal Chinese martial art practiced for both its defense training and health benefits. It is also typically practiced for a variety of other personal reasons: its hard and soft martial art technique, demonstration competitions, and longevity. Consequently, a multitude. ^[11] Static training requires the practitioner to hold the body in a particular posture. ^[12] Meditative training involves visualization or focus on specific ideas, sounds, images, concepts or breathing patterns. ^[13] There are also training methods that involve an external agent such as the ingestion of herbs, massages, physical manipulation or interactions with other living organisms. ^[3] A qigong system can be composed of one or more types of training. ^[6]

Qigong is considered to be part of alternative medicine In Western culture, alternative medicine is any healing practice "that does not fall within the realm of conventional medicine", or "that which has not been shown consistently to be effective." It is often opposed to evidence based medicine and encompasses therapies with an historical or cultural, rather than a scientific,^{[14] [15]}, with positive effects on various ailments.^[16] Some researchers are skeptical of some of the claims for qigong and label the subject matter a “pseudoscience”. ^[17] In addition, the origin and nature of qigong practice has led to misconceptions and misuses. ^[18] The abuse of qigong practice had led to the formation of cults ^[19] and potential psychiatric problems. ^[10]

History

The origin of qigong practice according to the Traditional Chinese Medicine community is commonly attributed to the legendary Yellow Emperor Huang-di, or the Yellow Emperor, is a legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero whom Chinese mythology presents as the ancestor of all Han Chinese. He was one of the legendary Five Emperors. He was mentioned in the Shiji by historian Sima Qian (145 BCE-90 BCE). Tradition holds that he reigned from 2697 BC to 2597 BC. His personal name was said and the classic Book of Internal Medicine Huangdi Neijing , also known as The Inner Canon of Huangdi or Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon, is an ancient Chinese medical text that has been treated as the fundamental doctrinal source for Chinese medicine for more than two millennia and until today. It is comparable in importance to the Hippocratic Corpus in Greek medicine or the works of Galen. ^{[20] [21] [22]} Verifiable archeological evidence suggests the first forms of qigong can be linked to shamanic meditative practice and gymnastic exercises. Archaeological evidence such as the Mawangdui Silk Texts The Mawangdui Silk Texts are texts of Chinese philosophical and medical works written on silk and found at Mawangdui in China in 1973. They include the earliest attested manuscripts of existing texts such as the I Ching, two copies of the Tao Te Ching, one similar copy of Strategies of the Warring States and a similar school of works of Gan De and (168 BC) shows a series of Tao Yin Tao Yin is a series of breathing exercises practiced by Taoists to cultivate ch'i or internal energy of the body based upon the principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine. The practice of Tao Yin was a precursor of qigong,, and was practised in Chinese Taoist monasteries for health and spiritual cultivation. Tao Yin is also said to be a primary (導引) exercises that bears physical resemblance to some of the health exercises being practiced today. ^[23][24] Shamanic rituals and ideas eventually evolved and formalized into Taoist beliefs and continued to be developed into Traditional Chinese Medicine. ^{[25] [26]}

In the Taoist tradition, the writings of Laozi According to Chinese tradition, Laozi lived in the 6th century BC. Historians variously contend that Laozi is a synthesis of multiple historical figures, that he is a mythical figure, or that he actually lived in the 4th century BC, concurrent with the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period (~ 400 BC) and Zhuangzi Zhuangzi is thought to have lived during the reign of King Hui of Liang and King Xuan of Qi, in the span from 370 to 301 BCE. Zhuangzi was from the Town of Meng in the State of Song (now Shāngqiū 商丘, Henan). His given name was Zhou (周, Zhōu). He was also known as Meng Official, Meng Zhuang, and Meng Elder (蒙吏, Méng Lì; 蒙莊, Méng (~300 BC) both describe meditative training and physical exercises to increase longevity and as means of accessing higher realms of existence, ^{[27] [28][29][30][31]}

Buddhism, originating from India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Mainland India is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the and the Hindu A Hindu ( pronunciation , Devanagari: हिन्दु) is an adherent of Hinduism, a set of religious, philosophical and cultural systems that originated in the Indian subcontinent. The vast body of Hindu scriptures, divided into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered"), lay the foundation of Hindu beliefs, which culture, has a rich history of meditation and special exercises such as Yoga Yoga refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India. The word is associated with meditative practices in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Within Hinduism, it also refers to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy, and to the goal towards which that school directs its practices. In Jainism, yoga is to help the practitioner achieve enlightenment. ^[32] When Buddhism was transmitted to China, some of those practices were assimilated and eventually modified by the indigenous culture. ^[33] The resulting transformation was the start of the Chinese Buddhist qigong tradition. Chinese Buddhist practice reaches a climax with the emergence of Chán Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The Japanese word Zen is derived from the Chinese word Chán, which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which means "meditation" or "meditative state." (禪) Buddhism in the 7th century AD. Meditative practice was emphasized and a series of qigong exercises known as the Yijin Jing ("Muscle/Tendon Change Classic") was attributed to Bodhidharma Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th/6th century and is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Zen to China. The Chinese martial arts community eventually identify this Yijing Jing as the one of the secret training methods in Shaolin martial arts Shaolin Kung Fu refers to a collection of Chinese martial arts that claim affiliation with the Shaolin Monastery. Of the tens of thousands of kung fu wushu styles, several hundred might have some relationship to Shaolin; however, aside from a few very well known systems, such as Xiao Hong Quan, the Da Hong Quan, Yin Shou Gun, Damo Sword, etc.[. ^[34]

Chinese scholars acknowledged Confucius His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism or Taoism (道家) during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as (551-479 BCE) and Mencius Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng; originally Zouxian), Shandong province, only thirty kilometres south of Qufu, Confucius' birthplace (385 - 302 BCE) as the founders of the Scholar qigong tradition. In their writings, they alluded to the concepts of qi training as methods of moral training. ^[35]

Chinese martial arts influenced by all the different elements within Chinese society adapted and modified qigong theory with the goal of improving their fighting abilities. ^[3] Many Chinese martial arts paid homage to Taoism or Buddhism by claiming them as their original source. For example, Tai chi chuan is often described as being Taoist in origin. ^[36] Shaolin martial arts is named after the famous Buddhist Shaolin temple. ^[37]

The exchange of ideas between those different segments within Chinese society created rich, complex and sometimes contradictory theory and methods of training. The difficulty in determining the correct training method, the traditional “Master-student” method of transmission and the belief that qigong represents a special and valuable knowledge limited the research and development of qigong to small but elite elements within Chinese society. Specialized text were available that were secretive and cryptic. ^[38] For the general population, qigong practice was a component of Traditional Chinese medicine. This medical system was developed based on experience, along with religious, demononological and magical practices. ^[39]

The nature and values of Chinese society changed radically with the arrival and dissemination of Western ideas, technology and culture starting from the 1500's.^[40] In the declining period of the Qing dynasty The Qing Dynasty , also known as the Manchu Dynasty, was the last ruling dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 (with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917). It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China (1644 - 1912), the entire Chinese philosophy and culture was re-examined. Chinese medicine, as part of the Chinese tradition, was re-evaluated in response to the effectiveness of Western medicine. ^[41]The conflict between the Eastern and Western approaches reached a crisis point at the beginning of the Republican period. Larger segments within Chinese society begin to openly challenge traditional Chinese philosophies such as Confucianism and Taoism and advocated the wholesale adoption of Western principles. In response, many nationalists counter by pointing out the limitation of Western society and the success of Chinese ideas such as TCM and qigong. The result was a great deal of publications and writings promoting Chinese cultural practice such qigong and introduce those ideas to the general population. ^[42] This conflicting worldviews will shape the development of qigong.

During the turmoil of the fall of the Qing Dynasty and through to the Republican Period A series of political, economic, and military missteps led the Kuomintang to defeat and retreat to Taiwan in 1949, establishing an authoritarian one-party state that considered itself to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of China. However, since political liberalization began in the late 1970s, the Republic of China has transformed itself into a (1912 -1949), Chinese society was fighting for its own survival and there was very little thought on the development of qigong.

Concerted efforts to re-establish Chinese culture under a new ideology begin after the creation of the People’s Republic of China During 1931 to 1934, with support from the Soviet Union, the Chinese Communist Party established another country inside the Republic of China. It was called the Chinese Soviet Republic. It had its own bank system and printed its own money, etc. It was the first time when two Chinas occurred. It was officially dissolved on 22 September 1937, when in 1945. The new ruling government under the leadership of Mao Zedong Mao Zedong listen (simplified Chinese: 毛泽东; traditional Chinese: 毛澤東; pinyin: Máo Zédōng; Wade-Giles: Mao Tse-tung; December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976) was a Han Chinese revolutionary, political theorist and communist leader. He led the People's Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His rejected all ties to traditional Chinese philosophies such as Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. Instead, the Chinese government promoted a socialist view. Though a series of government directed programs that lasted for thirty years (1949-1976), the entire fabric of Chinese society was torn apart and reorganized. It is in this environment that the current attitude to qigong in the Mainland was born.

Mao Zedong himself recognized the conflicting aims between the rejection of feudalistic ideas of the past and the benefits derived from those ideas. Traditional Chinese medicine was a clear example of this conflict. His solution can be summarized by his famous phrase “Chinese medicine is a great treasure house! We must make efforts to uncover it and raise its standards!” which legitimized the practice of Traditional Chinese medicine and created an impetus to develop a scientific based for Traditional Chinese medicine. ^[39] The subject of qigong under went a similar process of transformation. The historical elements of qigong were stripped to create a more scientific bases for the practice. ^[43]

In the early 1950’s, Liu Guizhen (劉貴珍) (1920-1983), a doctor by training, used his family’s method of body cultivation to successfully cure himself of various aliments. ^[44] He then promoted his method to his patients and eventually published a book, Qi Gong liaofa shiyan (氣功療法實驗) to promote his successes. His efforts to re-define qigong without a religious or philosophical context proved to be acceptable to the ruling government. ^[45] The popularity and success of Liu’s book and the government’s strong support for Traditional Chinese medicine resulted in the formation of Qigong department within University and hospitals that practices Traditional Chinese medicine. As a result, the first institutional support for qigong was established across China but this practice remained under tight control and had limited access to the general public. ^[43]

In the late 1970’s, with the fall of the Gang of Four The Gang of Four was the name given to a leftist political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) and were subsequently charged with a series of treasonous crimes. The members consisted of Jiang Qing, Mao Zedong's last wife and the leading figure of the group, and the start Era of Reconstruction, there was a new openness in Chinese society. The practice of qigong has spread from a institutional setting to a popular movement based on charismatic promoters. Guo Lin (郭林), a Beijing artist who claimed to have cured herself of uterine cancer in the 1960s, was one of the first qigong masters to teach qigong openly to the general public outside an institutional setting. ^[19] Scientists, free from the repression of the Cultural Revolution was able to seek new challenges. Among some of the new subjects they studied was the effect of qigong in order to provide a scientific base for this practice. In 1979, Gu Hansen of the Shanghai Institute of Atomic Research first reported on the external measurement of qi. This research proved to be critical in promoting the notion of a science bases for qigong. ^{[19] [43]} Other reports of external evidence of qi quickly followed. Other forms of measurements, personal testimonies on the effectiveness of qigong treatment and demonstration of the uses of qigong found in the martial arts were used to illustrate the practical realities of the qigong. ^{[19] [43]}

In the early 1980’s, the enthusiasm for this new external qi paradigm eventually leads to the use of qi as an explanation for paranormal Paranormal is a general term that designates experiences that lie outside "the range of normal experience or scientific explanation" or that indicates phenomena that are understood to be outside of science's current ability to explain or measure. Paranormal phenomena are distinct from certain hypothetical entities, such as dark matter abilities such as Extrasensory perception Extrasensory perception , also commonly referred to as the sixth sense, involves reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses but sensed with the mind. The term was coined by German psychical researcher, Rudolf Tischner, and adopted by Duke University psychologist J. B. Rhine to denote psychic abilities such as (ESP) and psychokinesis The term psychokinesis , also referred to as telekinesis (Greek τῆλε + κίνησις, literally "distant-movement") with respect to strictly describing movement of matter, sometimes abbreviated PK and TK respectively, is a term coined by publisher Henry Holt to refer to the direct influence of mind on a physical system that cannot. ^[46] The increasingly exaggerated claims of qigong practice prompted some elements within the Chinese government to warn of the dangers of this paranormal craze and the prevalence of pseudo scientific beliefs. ^[47] Leading public figures Qian Xuesen (钱学森) , eminent scientist and founder of Chinese Rocketry and Zhang Zhenhuan (张震寰) a former general, rushed to defend qigong practice. They champion the view of qigong as being a new science of the mind. A compromise on the support of qigong activities was eventually reached by various fractions within the Chinese government. Qigong activity was to be regulated with the establishment of the China Qigong Scientific Research Association was formed under the leadership of Zhang Zhenhuan and overt criticism of the paranormal research was to be muted. ^[19]

By the middle of the 1980’s, there were already 2000 qigong organizations and between 60 and 200 million practitioners across China. This represented almost one fifth of the Chinese population. This growth was fueled by the tacit support of small elements within the Chinese government, the reduced criticism of qigong practice, the pent-up demand within Chinese society for alternative belief systems and the improved methods of communication resulted in mass adaptation of qigong practice. ^[48] By the end of the 1980’s, the qigong practices could be found within all segments of Chinese society. ^[49]

By the end of the 1990’s, the explosive growth in the number of qigong practitioners had leaded to the revival of the old traditions that accompanied qigong development. Qigong organizations such as the Falun Gong Falun Gong is a system of beliefs and practices founded in China by Li Hongzhi in 1992. The practice emerged at the end of China's "qigong boom", a period of growth and popularity of similar practices. Falun Gong differs from other qigong schools in its absence of daily rituals of worship, its greater emphasis on morality, and the re-introduce religious and superstitious elements associated with their training methods. Such practices eventually lead to a direct conflict with the central authorities. By 1999, there were systematic crack down on qigong organization that are perceived to be challenging the State’s control over the Chinese society. ^[50] Since the crackdown, qigong research and practice are officially supported only in the context of health functions and as field of study within Traditional Chinese medicine. ^[51][52]

Migration, travel and exploration were the first reasons for the spread of qigong practice beyond the Chinese community. Occidental societies first encounter qigong concepts through exposure to Traditional Chinese medicine, Chinese philosophy or the Chinese martial arts. ^[53]

It was not until the opening of China with the visit of President Nixon U.S. President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to the People's Republic of China was an important step in formally normalizing relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China. It marked the first time a U.S. president had visited the PRC, who at that time considered the U.S. one of its staunchest foes. The visit has become a in 1972 and the subsequent exchanges between China and the West that Western society became aware of the promise of qigong practice. The ideas of qigong was quickly embraced by the alternative health care field ^[54] The idea of qi as a form of living energy also found a receptive audience within the New Age The New Age is a decentralized Western social and spiritual movement that seeks "Universal Truth" and the attainment of the highest individual human potential.[citation needed] It includes aspects of Occultism, astrology, esotericism, metaphysics, alternative medicine, music, collectivism, sustainability, and nature. New Age spirituality movement. ^[55] When the Chinese qigong community started to report cases of paranormal activity, Western researchers in the field were also excited by those findings. Chinese findings were reviewed ^[56] and some qigong practitioners was invited to the West to demonstrate those results. ^[46]

The American public’s first exposure the qigong was in the PBS series Healing and the Mind with Bill Moyers Bill Moyers is an American journalist and public commentator. He served as White House Press Secretary in the United States President Lyndon B. Johnson Administration from 1965 to 1967. He worked as a news commentator on television for ten years. Moyers has had an extensive involvement with public television, producing documentaries and news in 1993. ^[57] In the documentary, Moyers provided an in depth look at healing alternatives to Western medicine and introduce the audience to the success of traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and qigong. As a result, qigong practice spread to the general public. ^[58]

Today, millions of people around the world practice qigong and believe in the potential benefits of qigong in varying degrees. Similar to its historical origin, those interested in qigong come from a diverse background and practice for different reasons.

Theory

The central idea in qigong practice is the control and manipulation of qi, a form of energy. ^[59] Similar representations of this qi concept can be found in other cultures for example, Prana Prana is the Sanskrit for "vital life" (from the root prā "to fill", cognate to Latin plenus "full"). It is one of the five organs of vitality or sensation, viz. prana "breath", vac "speech", caksus "sight", shrotra "hearing", and manas "thought" (nose, mouth, eyes, in Vedantic Vedānta was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a sandhied form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas." philosophy, mana Mana is an indigenous Pacific islander concept of an impersonal force or quality that resides in people, animals, and inanimate objects. The word is a cognate in many Oceanic languages, including Melanesian, Polynesian, and Micronesian in Hawaiian culture, Lüng Lung is a word that means wind or breath. It is a key concept in the Vajrayana traditions of Tibetan Buddhism and as such is part of the symbolic 'twilight language', used to non-conceptually point to a variety of meanings. Lung is a concept that's particularly important to understandings of the subtle body and the Three Vajras (body, speech and in Tibetan Buddhism and Vital energy Where vitalism explicitly invokes a vital principle, that element is often referred to as the "vital spark," "energy" or "élan vital", which some equate with the "soul" in Western thoughts. Some elements of this idea can be understood in the term energy The term energy has been widely used by writers and practitioners of various forms of spirituality and alternative medicine to mean to a variety of phenomena, often the supposed "fields" surrounding the earth or any living thing, supposed to be directly perceptible and accessible to the human mind as "auras", "rays", & when used by writers and practitioners of various esoteric forms of spirituality and alternative medicine. The idea of qi can also be found in popular entertainment as represented by The Force in Star Wars Star Wars is an American epic space opera franchise conceived by George Lucas. The first film in the franchise was originally released on May 25, 1977, by 20th Century Fox, and became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon, spawning two sequels, released at three-year intervals. Sixteen years after the release of the trilogy's final film, the first in movies. ^[60]

The concept of qi as a form of pervasive energy is a fundamental pillar of Chinese Philosophy Chinese philosophy is philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought. Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the Yi Jing , an ancient compendium of divination, which uses a system of 64 hexagrams to guide action. This system is attributed to King Wen of Zhou (1099–1050 BCE) and. This energy is considered to exist in all things including the air, water, food, and sunlight. ^[61]In the body, qi represent the unseen vital force that sustains life. Qigong practice involves the manipulation and balance of the qi within the practitioner’s body and its interaction with the practitioner’s surroundings. ^[62] The method and ultimate objective for the practice is dependent on the practitioner.

Traditionally, qigong training has been thought of as being esoteric and secretive. Over the centuries, the exchange of ideas between various elements within Chinese society has created a unified over view of qigong practice even though each segments maintain their own detail interpretations and methods.

A person is considered to have been born with original amounts of qi. A person acquires qi from the food by eating, from the air by breathing and from interacting with their environment. A person becomes ill or dies when the amount or type of qi is unbalanced within the body. The practice of qigong is to regulate and control the qi within the body. ^[6]

In broad terms, according to Taoist and Buddhist philosophy, the regulation of qi is through three interconnected components: the Mind (心), the Body (身) and the Spirit (靈). For Buddhist, the training of the mind is through mediation, contemplation and special exercises. For some Taoist, the training and regulation also include external agents such as the ingestion of herbs and interactions with others. For Confucius Scholars the training involved the principle of cultivating virtue (de or te 德”) with virtual being defined according to a Confucian ideal.

The development of Traditional Chinese Medicine added more details to the role of qi within the human body. In this system, qi travels through the body along twelve main meridians The meridian is a concept central to traditional Chinese medical techniques such as acupuncture, and to martial arts such as tai chi and qigong. According to these practices, there are channels along which the energy or qi of the psychophysical system is considered to flow. Such techniques are said to achieve their effects by manipulation and, channels and numerous smaller branches and tributaries. Those main meridians also correspond to twelve main organs Zang Fu , is a concept within traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that describes the functions of the organs of the body and the interactions that occur between them. Zang 臟 refers to the yin organs - heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, pericardium - whilst Fu 腑 refers to the yang organs - small intestine, large intestine, gall bladder, urinary: the lung, large intestines, stomach, spleen, heart, small intestine, urinary bladder, kidney, liver, gallbladder, pericardium, and the ‘‘triple warmer,’’ which represents the entire torso region. The amount and flow of qi is affected by a person’s emotional state which is ultimately related to the Mind, the Body and the Spirit. Most qigong practices uses this concept of proper qi flow through those meridians as a basic premise.

All elements within Chinese society accept the importance of “Yin” and “Yang” or balance between complementary principles. This view suggest that two forces are always interacting, opposing, and influencing each other, as a result, it is not possible or desirable to eliminate one of those forces. The ideal situation is to seek a balance between those opposing forces. This concept is also applied in qigong theories. For example, the organs within the body are classified in terms of “Fire” (Yang organs Zang Fu , is a concept within traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that describes the functions of the organs of the body and the interactions that occur between them. Zang 臟 refers to the yin organs - heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, pericardium - whilst Fu 腑 refers to the yang organs - small intestine, large intestine, gall bladder, urinary) and “Water” (Yin organs Zang Fu , is a concept within traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that describes the functions of the organs of the body and the interactions that occur between them. Zang 臟 refers to the yin organs - heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, pericardium - whilst Fu 腑 refers to the yang organs - small intestine, large intestine, gall bladder, urinary), one of the goals in qigong practice is to balance the qi between those opposing organs. Other theory such as the Five Elements The Wu Xing , or the Five Movements, Five Phases or Five Steps/Stages, are chiefly an ancient mnemonic device, in many traditional Chinese fields (Wu Xing, 五行) provides even more details to explain the role and effect of qi within the human body.

Historically, the effect of qigong practice has always been subjective. It ranges from a feeling of calmness and peacefulness to a sense of well being. Throughout history, remarkable claims have also been made as a result of qigong practice. The journey towards self-enlightenment can include descriptions of out of body experiences and miraculous powers for both the Buddhist ^{[63] [64]}and the Taoist^{[65] [66]}. For some individuals, qigong training is seen as providing a curative function after extensive training. For martial artists, qigong training is credited as the bases for developing extraordinary powers such as the ability to withstand blows and the ability to break hard objects.

In the early 1980’s, the Chinese scientific community attempted to verify the principals of qi through external measurements. Initially, they reported great success suggesting that qi can be measured as a form of electrical magnetic radiation. Other reports indicates that qi can induce external effects such as changing the properties of a liquid, clairvoyance, and telekinesis. ^[46] Those reports created great excitement within the paranormal ^{[67] [68]} and para psychological research communities. ^{[69] [70]}

However, those reports were severely criticized by the conventional scientific community both within China ^[47] and outside of China. ^{[18] [17] [71]} The main criticism from the conventional scientific establishment on qigong research is the lack of application of the principles of the scientific method Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific method consists of notably the absence of scientific rigor, the small sample sizes, the uncontrolled testing environment and lack of reproducibility. ^[72] In addition to those criticisms, the public acceptance of paranormal properties arising from qigong practice contributed to social unrest. ^[73]

As a result of those controversies, the emphasis on qigong research within Mainland Chinas has changed from externally verifying the existence of qi to focus on effects on health and as a component of Traditional Chinese Medicine without any reference to other aspects of traditional qigong practice.

In contrast, Western society has accepted the spiritual elements of qigong practice and pay homage to its rich past. The Buddhist, Taoist, TCM or Martial Arts origins are recognized and used as justification for its effectiveness. ^[6] Given this acceptance, qigong practice becomes an important tool for improving one’s health. ^{[74] [75] [76] [77]}

Similar to the subject of efficacy of Traditional Chinese medicine, the chasm between the Eastern tradition of qi and the Western scientific viewpoints are not insurmountable if the analysis is limited to the effect on qigong practice on biological processes without demanding a material interpretation of qi. There is convincing argument to view as the concept of qi as a metaphor A metaphor is an analogy between two objects or ideas; the analogy is conveyed by the use of a metaphorical word in place of some other word. For example: "Her eyes were glistening jewels" for certain biological processes.^{[78] [79] [80]} The effectiveness of qigong can also be explained in terms of concepts more familiar to Western medicine such as stress management Stress management is the amelioration of stress and especially chronic stress often for the purpose of improving everyday functioning, ^{[81] [82]} biofeedback Biofeedback is the process of becoming aware of various physiological functions using instruments that provide information on the activity of those same systems, with a goal of being able to manipulate them at will. Processes that can be controlled include brainwaves, muscle tone, skin conductance, heart rate and pain perception. Biofeedback may ^{[54] [83]} and neurology Neurology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. The corresponding surgical specialty.^{[84] [85]}

Practice

Qigong is not only a set of breathing exercise but represents a large varieties of both physical and mental training methods designed to help the body and the mind based on Chinese philosophy. ^[86] The implementation details vary because of the teacher, school, and objective of the practitioner. A qigong system consists of one or more of the following type of training: dynamic, static, meditative and activities requiring external aids. Each type of training originated from different elements within Chinese society and emphasizes different aspects of qigong theory.

Dynamic qigong

Dynamic qigong can be easily recognized as a series of carefully choreograph movements or gestures that are designed to promote and manipulate the flow of qi within the practitioner’s body. Tai Chi Ch’uan, a Chinese martial art, is one well-known representation of dynamic qigong. ^[87] Other examples include Five animal frolics ^[88] or White Crane Qigong ^[89], Wild Goose (Dayan) Qigong ^[90]where the practitioner performs movements to mimic motions of animals. To an external observer, the series of movements are similar to calisthenics or other types of athletic endeavor. To the qigong practitioner, the practice requires a unity of mind, body and spirit with the aim of promoting and controlling the flow of qi. ^[91]

Static qigong

Static qigong is performed by holding a certain posture, position or stance for a period of time. In some cases, static qigong bears some similarities to the practice of Yoga and its continuation in the Buddhist tradition. ^[92] Yi quan, a Chinese martial art derived from Hsing Yi quan, is a strong proponent of stance training. ^[93] Six pieces of brocade, a well known set of health exercises, is also based on a series of postures. ^[94] To the external observer, the practitioner appears to be fixed in space. To the qigong practitioner, the physical and mental effort required to keep the posture results in the appropriate manipulation of qi.

Meditative qigong

Most qigong training will involve some form of meditation. Meditation is a popular method of mind body training and can be found in many different cultures. The details of qigong practice will differ depending on the origins of the meditation tradition. In Confucius scholar tradition, the meditation is focus on humanity and virtual with the aim of self-enlightenment. In the Buddhist method, the aim is to still the mind, either through a focus outward such as a place, inwards such as the breath, a mantra, a koan, emptiness or the idea of the eternal as represented by a Buddha. In Daoist and TCM tradition, meditative qigong seeks to lead qi through the proper meridian pathways with the aim of completing a smooth continuous flow of qi through the practitioner.

Qigong with external agents

Many systems of qigong training include the use of external agents. In Medical and Daoist methods, specialized food and drinks are prescribed to aid in the manipulation of qi. In martial arts qigong, the use of massage and various forms of body conditioning are used to promote qi flow. In some qigong systems, a qigong master can emit qi or manipulate the flow of qi within the practitioner as a form of treatment or to guide the flow of qi ^[95]

Applications

People practice qigong for many different purposes and those objectives determine the choice of qigong system. Although the benefits of qigong are numerous, the main reasons that people practice qigong are for their health, as a means of self cultivation and as part of their Chinese martial arts training.

Health

Although not proven conclusively from a Western Medical stand point, qigong is accepted treatment option in the field of complementary and alternative medicine. ^{[54] [15] [96]} Qigong treatment is also used extensively in China as part of Traditional Chinese Medicine and has been included in the curriculum of Chinese universities. ^[97] Qigong practice serves both a preventive and curative function. It is considered to be effective in improving the effects of many chronic conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, allergy, asthma, arthritis, degenerative disk disease, cancer, depression, anxiety and addiction. Qigong works by improving the practitioners’ immunity response, increasing a person’s self-healing and self-recovery capabilities and enhancing one’s self regeneration potential.

The major uses of qigong therapy are:

• General health maintenance ^{[98] [99]}
• Physical rehabilitation ^[16]
• Stress management and associated ailments such as hypertension ^{[81] [82]}
• Bone Density and Balance ^{[14] [100]}
• Cancer Treatment ^{[101] [102] [103] [104]}
• Arthritis ^{[105] [106] [107] [108]}
• Back pains ^{[109] [110] [111] [112]}

In 2003, the Chinese Health Qigong Association, ^[113] a member of the All-China Sports Federation, officially recognized four Health Qigong exercises:

• Yì Jīn Jīng (tendon-changing classic), ^{[114] [115]}
• Wu Qin Xi (frolics of five animals 五禽戲),^[116]
• Liu Zi Jue (the art of expiration in producing six different sounds), ^[117]
• Ba Duan Jin (eight excellent movements), ^[118]

Each of those exercise represents a standard for general health qigong practice.

Self-cultivation

Self-cultivation has many meanings and goals depending on the context. In terms of tradition Chinese philosophy, self cultivation methods can be classified as

• Confucius. The method represents a way for the practitioner to become a Junzi (c 君子 , pinyin : Jūnzǐ) through awareness of one’s morality.^[119][120]
• Taoist. The method represents a means to achieve longevity and spiritual enlightenment. ^[121]
• Buddhist. The method is understood to be spiritual paths that eventually lead to Buddhahood. ^[122]

Martial arts

The practice of qigong is an important component in Chinese martial arts. ^[3] It is considered to be a source of power as well as the foundation the internal style of martial arts. Tai chi chuan, Xing yi and Baguazhaun are representative of the type of Chinese martial art that relies on the concept of qi as its foundation. ^[123] Extra-ordinary feats of martial arts prowess such as the ability to withstand heavy strikes (Iron Shirt, 鐵衫) ^[124] and the ability to break hard objects (Iron Palm, 铁掌) ^{[125] [126]} are abilities attributed directly to qigong training.

Criticisms and controversies

Skeptics

There is little controversy in the benefit of qigong when the definition of qigong is limited to a series of physical movements and a set of relaxation exercise. Conflict arises between Western views and qigong systems when the claims of qigong practice exceed the capabilities and understanding of traditional science and at an extreme make claims that borders on the supernatural. ^{[19] [46]}

The same skepticism towards qigong practice can also be applied to the field of Traditional Chinese medicine and extends to the broader subject of alternative medicine and complementary medicine. The basic problem is that the information available from those fields does not fit the Western paradigm suitable for scientific acceptability or medical interpretation. ^{[17] [18] [71] [72] [127] [128]} At best, skeptics contend that most benefits derived from Alternative medicine are derived from a placebo effect. ^{[129] [130]} The main arguments against the results of qigong practice from the view of skeptics are:

• The existence of qi or any forms of vitalism has not been independently verified in a experimental setting to the satisfaction of the general scientific community. Such concept is not needed in the traditional biological sciences. ^[131]
• The demonstration in martial arts such as breaking hard objects with strikes can be explained using physics and does not need to resort to the concept of qi. ^{[132] [133]}
• Many reported claims of supernatural abilities appears to be tricks or fakes ^{[19] [47] [134] [135] [136] [137]}
• Explanations that involves the supernatural or requiring a spiritual element are beyond the scope of the scientific method.
• Personal benefits for some qigong master might have provided them with an incentive to exaggerate their claims ^[19]

Mental disorders

In some cases, the practice of qigong can result in mental disorders. ^{[10] [19] [48] [50]} Within the qigong community, this condition is known as Zouhuo rumo (走火入魔) or "qigong deviation" (氣功偏差) and is characterized by a perception from the practitioner that there is an uncontrolled flow of qi in the body. Other complaints include localized pains, headache, insomnia, uncontrolled and spontaneous movements. ^[10]

The diagnosis of “Qigong deviation syndrome” showed the following criteria ^[138]:

1. Normal before doing Qigong exercise
2. Psychological and physiological reactions appear during or after Qigong exercise; suggestion and autosuggestion may play an important role in those reactions
3. Complains of abnormal sensation during or after qigong exercise
4. Diagnostic criteria do not meet other mental disorders such as schizophrenia, affective disorder and neuroses.

It is a psychiatric disorder recognized by the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders (CCMD) (中国精神疾病分类方案与诊断标准) published by the Chinese Society of Psychiatry (CSP) (中华医学会精神病学). ^[139] In the West, there was no equivalent experience until the adoption of qigong practice by the public. When the Western medical community encountered those abnormal effects, they used the term "Qi Gong-Induced Psychosis" and classified the disorder as a Culture-bound syndrome in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association. ^{[140] [141]}

Within the qigong community, the cause of qigong deviation is due to ^[95]:

• An inexperience or unqualified instructor
• Incorrect instructions
• Impatience
• Becoming frightened, irritated confused or suspicious during the course of qigong practice
• Inappropriate manipulation or channeling of qi

In the psychiatric community, such conditions are viewed as being self induced and could be the result of a underlying physiological condition, a type of reactive psychosis or as the precipitation of an underlying mental illness, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or posttraumatic stress disorder. ^{[142] [143]}

Within the qigong community, there are specific treatments delaying with different forms of qigong deviations. ^{[95] [143]} In Western psychiatry, the use of antipsychotic may be required. ^[143]

See also

• Asahi Health
• Cybersectarianism
• Empty Force
• Hua Tuo
• Internal alchemy
• Jing (TCM)
• Kinesiotherapy
• Mind-body problem
• Mindfulness
• Neigong
• Silk reeling
• Tao Yin
• Taoist Sexual Practices
• World Tai Chi and Qigong Day
• Zhong Gong

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