Tao Information (Tao Te Ching) @ UnspeakableTruth.net

Tao (道, pinyin Pinyin , or more formally Hanyu Pinyin (汉语拼音 / 漢語拼音), is currently the most commonly used romanization system for Standard Mandarin (标准普通话 / 標準普通話). Hànyǔ (汉语 / 漢語) means the Chinese language, and pīnyīn (拼音) means "phonetics", or more literally, "spelling sound" or ": dào (help·info) ) is a concept found in Taoism Taoism refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia for more than two millennia, and have had a notable influence on the western world particularly since the 19th century. The word 道, Tao (or Dao, depending on the romanization scheme), roughly translates as, "path" or "way&, Confucianism Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . It is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. It might be considered a state religion of some East, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy is philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought. Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the Yi Jing , an ancient compendium of divination, which uses a system of 64 hexagrams to guide action. This system is attributed to King Wen of Zhou (1099–1050 BCE) and and East Asian religions In the study of comparative religion, the East Asian religions form a subset of the Eastern religions. This group includes Caodaism, Chen Tao, Chondogyo, Confucianism, Jeungism, Shinto, Taoism, I-Kuan Tao and elements of Mahayana Buddhism. While the word itself translates as 'way', 'path', or 'route', or sometimes more loosely as 'doctrine' or 'principle', it is often used philosophically to signify the fundamental or true nature of the world.

In Taoism Taoism refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia for more than two millennia, and have had a notable influence on the western world particularly since the 19th century. The word 道, Tao (or Dao, depending on the romanization scheme), roughly translates as, "path" or "way&, Tao both precedes and encompasses the universe The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including all physical matter and energy, the planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space, although this usage may differ with the context . The term Universe may be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting such concepts as the cosmos,. As with other nondualistic Nondualism is the implication that things appear distinct while not being separate. The word's origin is the Latin duo meaning "two". The term can refer to a belief, condition, theory, practice, or quality. The academic disciplines that study Nondualism in its spiritual permutations and cultural evocations are Transpersonal Psychology philosophies, all the observable objects in the world - referred to in the Tao Te Ching The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing (simplified Chinese: 道德经; traditional Chinese: 道德經; Mandarin Pinyin: dàodéjīng; Wade-Giles: Tao Te Ching; Jyutping: dou6 dak1 ging1[ Listen] ), whose authorship has been attributed to Laozi (simplified Chinese: 老子; traditional Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ), is a Chinese classic text. Its name as 'the named' or 'the ten thousand things' - are considered to be manifestations of Tao, and can only operate within the boundaries of Tao. Tao is, by contrast, often referred to as 'the nameless', because neither it nor its principles can ever be adequately expressed in words.

While the Tao cannot be expressed, Taoism holds that it can be known, and its principles can be followed. Much of Taoist writing focuses on the value of following the Tao - called Te De is a key concept in Chinese philosophy, usually translated "inherent character; inner power; integrity" in Taoism, "moral character; virtue; morality" in Confucianism and other contexts, and "quality; virtue" (guna) or "merit; virtuous deeds" (punya) in Chinese Buddhism (virtue) - and of the ultimate uselessness of trying to understand or control Tao outright. This is often expressed through yin and yang In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin yang is used to describe how polar or seemingly contrary forces are interconnected and interdependent in the natural world, and how they give rise to each other in turn. The concept lies at the heart of many branches of classical Chinese science and philosophy, as well as being a primary guideline of arguments, where every action creates a counter-action as a natural, unavoidable movement within manifestations of the Tao.

The Chinese word

The term dao 道 is analyzable in terms of Chinese characters A Chinese character, also known as a Han character , is a logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi), Japanese (kanji), less frequently Korean (hanja), and formerly Vietnamese (hán tự), and other languages. Chinese characters are also known as sinographs, and the Chinese writing system as sinography. Chinese characters represent the oldest, alternate dào "way" or dǎo "guide" pronunciations "Pronunciation" refers to the way a word or a language is spoken, or the manner in which someone utters a word. If someone is said to have "correct pronunciation," then it refers to both within a particular dialect and meanings, a possible Proto-Indo-European etymology Etymology is the study of the history of words, where they are from, and how their form and meaning have changed over time, and loanwords By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept, whereby it is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort, while calque is a loanword from French such as English tao or dao.

Bronze script Chinese Bronze inscriptions are writing in a variety of Chinese scripts on Chinese bronze artifacts such as zhōng bells and dǐng tripodal cauldrons from the Shāng dynasty to the Zhōu dynasty and even later. Early bronze inscriptions were almost always cast , while later inscriptions were often engraved after the bronze was cast for dao 道 Large seal script for dao 道 Small seal script for dao 道

Characters

Dao 道 graphically combines the chuo 辶 (or 辵) "go" radical and shou 首 "head" phonetic. Furthermore, dao 道 is the phonetic element in dao 導 "guide; lead" (with the cun 寸 "thumb; hand" radical) and dao 檤 "a tree name" (with the mu 木 "tree; wood" radical).

The traditional interpretation of the 道 character, dating back to the (121 CE) Shuowen Jiezi The Shuōwén Jiězì was an early 2nd century CE Chinese dictionary from the Han Dynasty. Although not the first comprehensive Chinese character dictionary (the Erya predates it), it was still the first to analyze the structure of the characters and to give the rationale behind them (sometimes also the etymology of the words represented by them), dictionary, was a rare huiyi 會意 "compound ideogram" or "ideogrammic compound All Chinese characters are logograms, but there are several derivative types. These include a handful which are pictographic in origin, and a number which are ideographic (指事 zhǐshì) in origin, but the vast majority originated as phono-semantic compounds (形聲 xíngshēng). In older literature, Chinese characters in general may be referred". The道combination of chuo 辶 "go" and shou 首 "head" (numbers 162 and 185 in the Kangxi radicals The following is a list of all 214 Kangxi radicals, used originally in the 1615 Zihui and adopted by the 1716 Kangxi dictionary, in order of the number of strokes along with some examples of characters containing them. This list has become such a common standard that sometimes radicals are referred to by number alone. A reference to "radical 6) signified a "head going" or "to lead the way".

Dao is graphically distinguished between its earliest nominal meaning of dao 道 "way; road; path;" and the later verbal sense of "say". It should also be contrasted with dao 導 "lead the way; guide; conduct; direct; ". The Simplified character 导 for dao 導 has si 巳 "6th of the 12 Earthly Branches The Earthly Branches provide one Chinese system for reckoning time" in place of dao 道.

The earliest written forms of dao are bronzeware script Chinese Bronze inscriptions are writing in a variety of Chinese scripts on Chinese bronze artifacts such as zhōng bells and dǐng tripodal cauldrons from the Shāng dynasty to the Zhōu dynasty and even later. Early bronze inscriptions were almost always cast , while later inscriptions were often engraved after the bronze was cast and seal script Seal script is an ancient style of Chinese calligraphy. It evolved organically out of the Zhōu dynasty script (see bronze script), arising in the Warring State of Qin. The Qin variant of seal script became the standard and was adopted as the formal script for all of China in the Qin dynasty, and was still widely used for decorative engraving and characters from Zhou Dynasty The Zhou Dynasty followed the Shang Dynasty and was followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history — though the actual political and military control of China by the dynasty only lasted during the Western Zhou. During the Zhou Dynasty, the use of iron was introduced to China, while (1045-256 BCE) bronzes and writings. These ancient dao characters more clearly depict the shou 首 "head" element as hair above a face. Some variants interchange the chuo 辵 "go; advance" radical with the xing 行 "go; road" radical, with the original bronze "crossroads" depiction written in the seal character with two 彳 and 亍 "footprints".

Bronze scripts for dao 道 occasionally include an element of shou 手 "hand" or cun 寸 "thumb; hand", which occurs in dao 導 "lead". The linguist Peter A. Boodberg explained,

This "tao with the hand element" is usually identified with the modern character導 tao < d'ôg, "to lead," "guide," "conduct," and considered to be a derivative or verbal cognate of the noun tao, "way," "path." The evidence just summarized would indicate rather that "tao with the hand" is but a variant of the basic tao and that the word itself combined both nominal and verbal aspects of the etymon. This is supported by textual examples of the use of the primary tao in the verbal sense "to lead" (e. g., Analects 1.5; 2.8) and seriously undermines the unspoken assumption implied in the common translation of Tao as "way" that the concept is essentially a nominal one. Tao would seem, then, to be etymologically a more dynamic concept than we have made it translation-wise. It would be more appropriately rendered by "lead way" and "lode" ("way," "course," "journey," "leading," "guidance"; cf. "lodestone" and "lodestar"), the somewhat obsolescent deverbal noun from "to lead."^[1]

These Confucian Analects Lunyu (simplified Chinese: 论 citations of dao verbally meaning "to guide; to lead" are: "The Master said, 'In guiding a state of a thousand chariots, approach your duties with reverence and be trustworthy in what you say" and "The Master said, 'Guide them by edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame." ^[2]

Pronunciations

In modern Standard Mandarin Standard Mandarin, or Standard Chinese, known by various names to native speakers, is the official modern Chinese spoken language used in mainland China and Taiwan, and is one of the four official languages of Singapore, dao 道's pronunciations are tonally The phonology of Standard Mandarin is reproduced below. Actual reproduction varies widely among speakers, as people inadvertently introduce elements of their native dialects. By contrast, television and radio announcers are chosen for their pronunciation accuracy and "neutral" accent differentiated between 4th falling tone dào "way; path" and 3rd dipping tone dǎo (usually written 導) "guide; lead".

Besides these common 4th and 3rd tonal specifications dào 道 "way" and dǎo 道 (or 導) "guide", 道 has a rare 1st level tone dāo pronunciation in the regional idiomatic expression shénshendāodāo 神神道道 "odd; bizarre". This reduplication Reduplication, in linguistics, is a morphological process by which the root or stem of a word, or part of it, is repeated of shen Shen is a keyword in Chinese philosophy, Chinese religion, and Traditional Chinese Medicine 神 "spirit; god" and dao occurs in Northeast China Northeast China is a geographical region of China, consisting of the three provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. It is separated from Russia largely by the Amur, Argun, and Ussuri rivers, from North Korea by the Yalu River and Tumen River, and from the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region by the Greater Khingan Range. The heartland of the speech.

In Middle Chinese Middle Chinese , or Ancient Chinese as used by linguist Bernhard Karlgren, refers to the Chinese language spoken during Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th century - 10th century). The term "Middle Chinese", in contrast to Old Chinese and Modern Chinese, is usually used in the context of historical (ca. 6th-10th centuries CE) tone name categories, 道 and 道/導 were qusheng 去聲 "departing tone" and shangsheng 上聲 "rising tone". Historical linguists Modern historical linguistics dates from the late 18th century. It grew out of the earlier discipline of philology, the study of ancient texts and documents dating back to antiquity have reconstructed Middle 道 "way" and 導 "guide" as d'âu- and d'âu: (Bernhard Karlgren Bernhard Karlgren was a Swedish sinologist, philologist, and the founder of Swedish sinology as a scholarly discipline. His full name was Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren, and he adopted the Chinese name "Gao Ben Han" traditional Chinese: 高本漢; simplified Chinese: 高本汉; pinyin: Gāo Běnhàn)),^[3] dau and dau (Zhou Fagao),^[4] daw^' and daw^h (Edwin G. Pulleyblank, "Early Middle"),^[5] dawX and daws (William H. Baxter),^[6] and dâu^B and dâu^C (Axel Schuessler).^[7]

In Old Chinese Old Chinese , or Archaic Chinese as used by linguist Bernhard Karlgren, refers to the Chinese spoken from the Shang Dynasty (Chinese Bronze Age, ended in the 11th century BC), well into the Former Han Dynasty (206 BC to 9 AD). There are several distinct sub-periods within that long period of time. The term, in contrast to Middle Chinese and Modern (ca. 7th-3rd centuries BCE) pronunciations, reconstructions for 道 "way" and 道/導 "guide" are *d'ôg (Karlgren), *dəw (Zhou), *dəgwx and *dəgwh (Li Fanggui),^[8] *luʔ (Baxter), and *lûʔ and *lûh (Schuessler).

Meanings

The word dao 道 has many meanings. For example, the Chinese Hanyu Da Zidian The Hanyu Da Zidian is one of the best available reference works on Chinese characters dictionary defines 39 meanings for dào 道 "way; path" and 6 for dǎo 道 (導) "guide; lead".^[9]

John DeFrancis John DeFrancis was an American linguist, sinologist, author of Chinese language textbooks, lexicographer of Chinese dictionaries, and Professor Emeritus of Chinese Studies at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa's exemplary Chinese-English dictionary gives twelve meanings for dào 道 "way; path; say", three for dǎo 道 (or 導) "guide; lead", and one for dāo 道 in an "odd, bizarre" idiomatic expression. Note that brackets clarify abbreviations and ellipsis marks omitted usage example.

²dào 道 N. [noun A noun can co-occur with an article or an attributive adjective. Verbs and adjectives can't. In the following, an asterisk in front of an example means that this example is ungrammatical] road; path ◆M. [nominal measure word In linguistics, measure words, known more formally as numeral classifiers and also called counters, count words, counter words, or counting words, are words that are used in combination with a numeral to indicate the count of nouns. The term "numeral classifier" arises from the fact that measure words often classify the noun they modify] ① (for rivers/topics/etc.) ② (for a course (of food); a streak (of light); etc.) ◆V. [verb In syntax, a verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word that conveys action (bring, read, walk, run, murder), or a state of being (exist, stand). In most languages, verbs are inflected (modified in form) to encode tense, aspect, mood and voice. A verb may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments, such as] ① say; speak; talk (introducing direct quote, novel style) … ② think; suppose ◆B.F. [bound form, bound morpheme In morphology, a bound morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as an independent word. A free morpheme is one which can stand alone] ① channel ② way; reason; principle ③ doctrine ④ Daoism ⑤ line ⑥〈hist.〉 [history] ⑦ district; circuit canal; passage; tube ⑧ say (polite words) … See also ⁴dǎo, ⁴dāo ⁴dǎo 导/道[導/-] B.F. [bound form] ① guide; lead … ② transmit; conduct … ③ instruct; direct … ⁴dāo 道 in shénshendāodāo … 神神道道 R.F. [reduplicated Reduplication, in linguistics, is a morphological process by which the root or stem of a word, or part of it, is repeated form] 〈topo.〉[topolect The term dialect is used in two distinct ways, even by linguists. One usage refers to a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. A dialect that is associated, non-Mandarin "dialect"] odd; fantastic; bizarre ^[10]

Etymologies

The etymological linguistic origins of dao "way; path" depend upon its Old Chinese pronunciation, which scholars have tentatively reconstructed as *d'ôg, *dəgwx, *dəw, *luʔ, and *lûʔ.

Boodberg noted that the shou 首 "head" phonetic in the dao 道 character was not merely phonetic but "etymonic", analogous with English to head meaning "to lead" and "to tend in a certain direction," "ahead," "headway".

Paronomastically, tao is equated with its homonym 蹈 tao < d'ôg, "to trample," "tread," and from that point of view it is nothing more than a "treadway," "headtread," or "foretread "; it is also occasionally associated with a near synonym (and possible cognate) 迪 ti < d'iôk, "follow a road," "go along," "lead," "direct"; "pursue the right path"; a term with definite ethical overtones and a graph with an exceedingly interesting phonetic, 由 yu < djôg," "to proceed from." The reappearance of C162 [辶] "walk" in ti with the support of C157 [⻊] "foot" in tao, "to trample," "tread," should perhaps serve us as a warning not to overemphasize the headworking functions implied in tao in preference to those of the lower extremities.^[11]

Victor H. Mair Victor H. Mair is an Indo-Europeanist and Sinologist, and a Professor of Chinese Language and Literature in the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, United States. Professor Mair has edited the standard Columbia History of Chinese Literature and the Columbia Anthology of Traditional proposes a Proto-Indo-European The Proto-Indo-European language is the unattested, reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. The existence of such a language has been accepted by linguists for over a century, and reconstruction is far advanced and quite detailed etymology for dao 道, supported by numerous cognates in Indo-European languages, and semantically similar Arabic and Hebrew words.

The archaic pronunciation of Tao sounded approximately like drog or dorg. This links it to the Proto-Indo-European root drogh (to run along) and Indo-European dhorg (way, movement). Related words in a few modern Indo-European languages are Russian doroga (way, road), Polish droga (way, road), Czech draha (way, track), Serbo-Croatian draga (path through a valley), and Norwegian dialect drog (trail of animals; valley). …. The nearest Sanskrit (Old Indian) cognates to Tao (drog) are dhrajas (course, motion) and dhraj (course). The most closely related English words are "track" and "trek", while "trail" and "tract" are derived from other cognate Indo-European roots. Following the Way, then, is like going on a cosmic trek. Even more unexpected than the panoply of Indo-European cognates for Tao (drog) is the Hebrew root d-r-g for the same word and Arabic t-r-q, which yields words meaning "track, path, way, way of doing things" and is important in Islamic philosophical discourse.^[12]

Axel Schuessler's etymological dictionary presents two possibilities for the tonal morphology of dào 道 "road; way; method" < Middle Chinese dâu^B < Old Chinese *lûʔ and dào 道 or 導 "to go along; bring along; conduct; explain; talk about" < Middle dâu^C < Old *lûh.^[13]. Either dào 道 "the thing which is doing the conducting" is a Tone B (shangsheng 上聲 "rising tone") "endoactive noun" derivation from dào 導 "conduct", or dào 導 is a Later Old Chinese (Warring States Period) "general tone C" (qusheng 去聲 "departing tone") derivation from dào 道 "way".^[14] For a possible etymological connection, Schuessler notes the ancient Fangyan dictionary defines yu < *lokh 裕 and lu < *lu 猷 as Eastern Qi State dialectal words meaning dào < *lûʔ 道 "road".

Loanwords

Many languages have borrowed and adapted Chinese dao 道 "the way" as a loanword.

In Sinitic languages, this character 道 is pronounced as Cantonese dou6 and Taiwanese to7. In Sino-Xenic languages, 道 is pronounced as Japanese dō, tō, or michi; Korean do or to; and Vietnamese đạo, dạo, or nhạo.

Since 1982, when the International Organization for Standardization adopted Pinyin as the standard romanization of Chinese, many Western languages have changed from spelling this loanword tao in national systems (e.g., French EFEO Chinese transcription and English Wade-Giles) to dao in Pinyin.

The tao/dao "the way" English word of Chinese origin has three meanings, according to the Oxford English Dictionary.

1. a. In Taoism, an absolute entity which is the source of the universe; the way in which this absolute entity functions. 1. b. = Taoism, Taoist 2. In Confucianism and in extended uses, the way to be followed, the right conduct; doctrine or method.

The earliest recorded usages were Tao (1736), Tau (1747), Taou (1831), and Dao (1971).

From original references to Chinese philosophy, the English word tao has generalized in usage, for instance, The Tao of Steve film.

Characteristics

In literal translation, the Chinese word "Tao" (道) is usually rendered in English as road, channel, path, way, doctrine, or line.^[15] The word is commonly used metaphorically in philosophical and religious writings. Accord to Wing-tsit Chan, Tao means a (proper) system of morality for Confucianists, but the natural, eternal, spontaneous, indescribable way the universe and all it contains originated and continued for Taoists.^[16] Hansen disagrees that these were separate meanings and attributes, seeing them as mutually inclusive and appropriate definitions in both traditions.^[17] Tao is often associated with nature, due to the common belief that nature demonstrates Tao.^[18] It is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Indian concepts of atman and dharma.^[19]

Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order, equating it with the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered.^[20] The flow of qi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is often compared to the universal order of Tao. Tao is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence. It is compared to what it is not, which according to Keller is similar to the negative theology of Western scholars.^[21]

The Chinese character for "tao".

"Tao" may be used in Chinese as a noun, verb, or adjective, and its meaning can vary significantly depending on context. While Tao is often unavoidably referred to in the sense of the Tao in English, in that context the word is more properly considered a convenient and potentially misleading label for a universal, all-encompassing essence that has no true representation in language. The opening of the Tao Te Ching illustrates this point: "The Tao that can be spoken of is not the real Tao."^[22]

Tao is deeply associated with wu ("void" or "nothingness"), including in the forms of wu wei and wu chi. This wu is not simple nothingness, but rather a formless and infinite potential. According to Ch'eng and Cheng, symbols and images of tao are intended to refer to the way that we relate to the Tao and the way the tao relates to the universe. They are not intended to speak of the Tao as itself. Water is soft and flexible, yet possesses an immense power to overcome obstacles and alter landscapes, even carving canyons with its slow and steady persistence. It is viewed as a reflection of, or close in action, to Tao. Tao is often expressed as a sea or flood that cannot be dammed or denied. It flows around and over obstacles like water, setting an example for those who wish to live in accord with it.^[23]

As a concept and label

The ba gua, a symbol commonly used to represent the Tao and its pursuit.

Liu Da interprets the Tao Te Ching as distinguishing between the label "Tao" (the "named Tao") and the "real" Tao that cannot be spoken of (the "unnamed Tao").^{[notes 1]} This suggests that the word "Tao" may be used to emphasize particular aspects of the broader (unnamed) Tao. Liu Da asserts that Tao is properly understood as an experiential and evolving concept. The I Ching, a text integral to both Taoism and Confucianism, supports these conclusions.^{[notes 2]} Not only are there differences in the personal interpretation of Tao, but what people perceive in Tao is likely to be founded in their own character.^[24]

The word "tao" (道) has a variety of meanings in ancient Chinese literature. Michael LaFargue posits that the word was not yet clearly defined and fixed when the Tao Te Ching was written. In the Tao Te Ching, it is used in a variety of ways across a spectrum of meanings that range from completely mundane and common ancient Chinese usage to relatively abstract and involved meanings specific to the followers of early Taoism. A common usage is a symbolic reference to its basic meaning of "road" or "way", indicating "the right way". This usage is shared among Taoists, Confucianists, and Buddhists in China. Tao also refers to the full coming into being of the spirit or mind. This can also be perceived as a state of enlightenment or the reaching of spiritual perfection. In a related meaning, the word is used to refer to the highest state of morality and good character. All of these labels relate the intellectual and spiritual paths and achievements of the faithful to the broader concept of Tao.^[25]

Te

Main article: De (Chinese)

Tao is associated with the complex concept of Te (德) "power; virtue; integrity", that is, the active expression of Tao.^[26] Te is the active living, or cultivation, of that "way".^[27]

Tao can be conceived as the primordial principle from which all existence arose and arises. An alternative interpretation of the same concept frames it as the universal tao being that which brings all things into being. In this context, Te is the essence of a thing or that which causes a thing to be that thing. It can also be said to be the true mind of a person or the purest being of a thing. Wu wei and "naturalness" are inclusive with the effortless following of one's Te.^[28]

Differing interpretations of Tao and Te lead to intellectual and social conflict between Taoists and Confucianists. Taoism regarded social constructions and rigorous codes to be anathema to the pursuit of Tao. Confucianism emphasized the values of humaneness, righteousness, and codified behavior in relation to Te. Taoism rejected the Confucian view of Te. Taoists instead considered the Te to be beyond considerations of morality and aesthetics. The Taoist viewpoint critical of Confucian interpretations of Te is expressed as the rejection of extensive knowledge, powerful desires, and social artifice commonly found in Taoist scripture and writings. In some writings, such as the Tao Te Ching, those rejected factors are blamed for the loss and inhibition of mental and spiritual perfection among people.^[29]

Taoist interpretations

Diversity of views

There is no single orthodox Taoist view of Tao. All forms of Taoism center around Tao and Te, but there is a broad variety of distinct interpretations among sects and even individuals within the same sect. Despite this diversity, there are some clear, common patterns and trends within Taoism and its branches.^[31]

The diversity of Taoist interpretations of Tao can be seen across four texts representative of major streams of thought within Taoism: Tao Te Ching, Tao T'i Lun, Ch'ing Ching Ching, and Zhuangzi (book) (often spelled Chuang Tzu). All four texts are used in modern Taoism with varying acceptance and emphasis among sects. Tao Te Ching is the oldest text and representative of a speculative and philosophical approach to the Tao. Tao T'i Lun is an eighth century exegesis of the Tao Te Ching, written from a well-educated and religious viewpoint, that represents the traditional scholarly perspective. The devotional perspective of Tao is expressed in Ch'ing Ching Ching, a liturgical text that was original composed during the Song Dynasty and is used as a hymnal in religious Taoism, especially among eremites. Chuang Tzu uses literary devices such as tales, allegories, and narratives to relate the Tao to the reader, illustrating a metaphorical method of viewing and expressing the Tao.^[32]

A Taoist monk practicing Chinese calligraphy with water on stone.

Unlike other world religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism, religious Taoism is not a monolithic tradition or faith. The forms and variations of religious Taoism are incredibly diverse. They integrate a broad spectrum of academic, ritualistic, supernatural, devotional, literary, and folk practices with a multitude of results. Buddhism and Confucianism particularly affected the way many sects of Taoism framed, approached, and perceived the Tao. The multitudinous branches of religious Taoism accordingly regard the Tao, and interpret writings about it, in innumerable ways. Thus, outside of a few broad similarities, it is difficult to provide an accurate yet clear summary of their interpretation of Tao.^[33]

A central tenet within most varieties of religious Taoism is that the Tao is ever-present, but must be manifested, cultivated, and/or perfected in order to be realized. It is the source of the universe and the seed of its primordial purity resides in all things. The manifestation of Tao is Te, which rectifies and invigorates the world with the Tao's radiance.^[34]

Alternatively, philosophical Taoism regards the Tao as a non-religious concept; it is a not a deity to be worshiped, nor is it a mystical Absolute in the religious sense of the Hindu Brahman. Joseph Wu remarked of this conception of Tao, "Tao is not religiously available; nor is it even religiously relevant." It is an inexplicable, inexpressible first cause that is easy to philosophically approach, but difficult to develop as a religious foundation. The writings of Lao Tzu and Chang Tzu are tinged with esoteric tones and approach humanism and naturalism as paradoxes.^[35] In contrast to the esotericism typically found in religious systems, the Tao is not transcendent to the self nor is mystical attainment an escape from the world in philosophical Taoism. The self steeped in Tao is the self grounded in its place within the natural universe. A person dwelling within the Tao excels in themselves and their activities.^[36]

However, this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects and movements.^[37] Some scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao.^[38] According to Kirkland, "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and the West, have finally abandoned the simplistic dichotomy of Tao-chia and Tao-chiao, 'philosophical Taoism' and 'religious Taoism.'"^[39]

Confucian interpretations

Buddhist interpretations

Neo-Confucian interpretations

Notes

^ Tao Te Ching, Chapter 1. "It is from the unnamed Tao That Heaven and Earth sprang; The named is but The Mother of the ten thousand creatures."
^ I Ching, Ta Chuan (Great Treatise). "The kind man discovers it and calls it kind; the wise man discovers it and calls it wise; the common people use it every day and are not aware of it."

Citations

^ Boodberg (1957), p. 599
^ 1.5 and 2.8, tr. Lau (1979), p. 59 and p. 63.
^ Karlgren (1957).
^ Zhou (1972).
^ Pulleyblank (1991).
^ Baxter (1992).
^ Schuessler (2007).
^ Li (1971).
^ Hanyu Da Zidian 漢語大字典 (1989), pp. 3864-3866.
^ DeFrancis (2007), pp. 172, 829.
^ Boodberg (1957), p. 602.
^ Mair (1990), p. 132.
^ Schuessler (2007), p. 207
^ Schuessler (2007), p. 48 and 41.
^ DeFrancis (1996) p. 113
^ Chan (1963) p. 136
^ Hansen (2000), p. 206.
^ Martinson (1987), pp. 168–169.
^ LaFargue (1994) p. 283.
^ Cane (2002), p. 13.
^ Keller (2003), p. 289.
^ Liu (1981), pp. 1-3.
^ Ch'eng and Cheng (1991), pp. 175-77.
^ Liu (1981), pp. 2-3.
^ LaFargue (1992), pp. 245-47.
^ Sharot (2001), pp. 77–78, 88.
^ Maspero (1981), p. 32.
^ Bodde & Fung (1997), pp. 99-101.
^ Bodde & Fung (1997), pp. 100-02.
^ Kohn (1993), p. 11.
^ Kohn (1993), p. 11-12.
^ Kohn (1993), p. 12.
^ Fowler (2005), pp. 5-7.
^ Kohn (1993), pp. 11-12.
^ Moeller (2006) p.133-145.
^ Fowler (2005), p. 5-6.
^ Mair (2001) p. 174
^ Robinet (1997), p. 3.
^ Kirkland (2004) p. 2.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Taylor & Choy (2005), p. 589.
^ Dumoulin (2005), pp. 63-65.
^ Hershock (1996), pp. 67-70.

Bibliography

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“	[Tao] means a road, path, way; and hence, the way in which one does something; method, doctrine, principle. The Way of Heaven, for example, is ruthless; when autumn comes 'no leaf is spared because of its beauty, no flower because of its fragrance'. The Way of Man means, among other things, procreation; and eunuchs are said to be 'far from the Way of Man'. Chu Tao is 'the way to be a monarch', i.e. the art of ruling. Each school of philosophy has its tao, its doctrine of the way in which life should be ordered. Finally in a particular school of philosophy whose followers came to be called Taoists, tao meant 'the way the universe works'; and ultimately something very like God, in the more abstract and philosophical sense of that term.	”
—The way and its power: a study of the Tao tê ching and its place in Chinese thought (Grove Press, 1958). ISBN 0-8021-5085-3., Arthur Waley

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